Emergency medicine updates: Lower gastrointestinal bleeding.

INTRODUCTION: Lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) is a condition commonly seen in the emergency department. Therefore, it is important for emergency medicine clinicians to be aware of the current evidence regarding the diagnosis and management of this disease. OBJECTIVE: This paper evaluates key evidence-based updates concerning LGIB for the emergency clinician. DISCUSSION: LGIB is most commonly due to diverticulosis or anorectal disease, though there are a variety of etiologies. The majority of cases resolve spontaneously, but patients can have severe bleeding resulting in hemodynamic instability. Initial evaluation should focus on patient hemodynamics, the severity of bleeding, and differentiating upper gastrointestinal bleeding from LGIB. Factors associated with LGIB include prior history of LGIB, age over 50 years, and presence of blood clots per rectum. Computed tomography angiography is the imaging modality of choice in those with severe bleeding to diagnose the source of bleeding and guide management when embolization is indicated. Among stable patients without severe bleeding, colonoscopy is the recommended modality for diagnosis and management. A transfusion threshold of 7 g/dL hemoglobin is recommended based on recent data and guidelines (8 g/dL in those with myocardial ischemia), though patients with severe bleeding and hemodynamic instability should undergo emergent transfusion. Anticoagulation reversal may be necessary. If bleeding does not resolve, embolization or endoscopic therapies are necessary. There are several risk scores that can predict the risk of adverse outcomes; however, these scores should not replace clinical judgment in determining patient disposition. CONCLUSIONS: An understanding of literature updates can improve the care of patients with LGIB.

Evaluation and Management of Airway Foreign Bodies in the Emergency Department Setting.

BACKGROUND: Airway foreign body can be a life-threatening issue in pediatric and adult patients, and the majority of these patients will first present to the emergency department. OBJECTIVE: This article provides a narrative review of the diagnosis and management of airway foreign bodies for the emergency clinician. DISCUSSION: Foreign bodies in the upper and lower airways are potentially life threatening. This affects all age groups but is more common in pediatric patients. A history of a witnessed ingestion or aspiration event should raise the clinical suspicion for an aspirated foreign body. Patients with upper-airway foreign bodies are more likely to present in respiratory distress when compared with lower-airway foreign bodies, which often present with more subtle signs. Stridor, drooling, and wheezing suggest respiratory distress, but the presenting clinical picture is often unclear and may only include a cough. Immediate intervention is required in the patient with hemodynamic instability or respiratory distress. Airway management including laryngoscopy, fiberoptic bronchoscopy, and cricothyrotomy may be needed in these patients, with the emphasis on removing the obstructing foreign body and securing the airway. Specialist consultation can assist in retrieving the foreign body and managing the airway. If the patient is stable, imaging and specialist consultation for potential operating room intervention should be considered. CONCLUSIONS: An understanding of the presentation, evaluation, and management of the patient with an airway foreign body is essential for emergency clinicians.

Can Risk Stratification Tools Be Utilized to Safely Discharge Low-Risk Febrile Neutropenic Patients from the Emergency Department?

BACKGROUND: Chemotherapy-induced febrile neutropenia (FN) is one of the more common oncological emergencies. Despite evidence in the oncology literature suggesting that low-risk cases of FN can be managed safely at home, most patients with FN who present to the emergency department (ED) are admitted. FN risk stratification methods, such as Multinational Association for Supportive Care in Cancer (MASCC) and Clinical Index of Stable Febrile Neutropenia (CISNE) scores, may be useful when considering patient disposition. We sought to address whether the existing body of literature is adequate to support the use of these methods when treating patients with FN in the ED. METHODS: A PubMed search from January 1, 2016 to March 19, 2021 was performed using the following search strategy: "febrile neutropenia" OR (fever AND neutropenia)) AND (emerg* OR outpatient) AND (admit OR admission OR hospitalization). General review articles and case reports were omitted. Each of the articles selected underwent a structured review. RESULTS: The search yielded 371 articles, which were independently screened for relevance by two authors, and 23 articles were selected for inclusion. MASCC score was used in 10 of the identified studies and each of these studies concluded that the score was useful in the ED. Most of the identified studies found that CISNE score had a higher sensitivity than MASCC score (96.7% vs. 32.9%, respectively), but a lower specificity (22.2% vs. 89.5%). CONCLUSIONS: FN risk stratifications tools, such as MASCC and CISNE scores, are supported by the existing literature and may be included as part of the decision-making process when considering patient disposition.

Study protocol for the Innovative Support for Patients with SARS-COV-2 Infections Registry (INSPIRE): A longitudinal study of the medium and long-term sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

BACKGROUND: Reports on medium and long-term sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infections largely lack quantification of incidence and relative risk. We describe the rationale and methods of the Innovative Support for Patients with SARS-CoV-2 Registry (INSPIRE) that combines patient-reported outcomes with data from digital health records to understand predictors and impacts of SARS-CoV-2 infection. METHODS: INSPIRE is a prospective, multicenter, longitudinal study of individuals with symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection in eight regions across the US. Adults are eligible for enrollment if they are fluent in English or Spanish, reported symptoms suggestive of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, and if they are within 42 days of having a SARS-CoV-2 viral test (i.e., nucleic acid amplification test or antigen test), regardless of test results. Recruitment occurs in-person, by phone or email, and through online advertisement. A secure online platform is used to facilitate the collation of consent-related materials, digital health records, and responses to self-administered surveys. Participants are followed for up to 18 months, with patient-reported outcomes collected every three months via survey and linked to concurrent digital health data; follow-up includes no in-person involvement. Our planned enrollment is 4,800 participants, including 2,400 SARS-CoV-2 positive and 2,400 SARS-CoV-2 negative participants (as a concurrent comparison group). These data will allow assessment of longitudinal outcomes from SARS-CoV-2 infection and comparison of the relative risk of outcomes in individuals with and without infection. Patient-reported outcomes include self-reported health function and status, as well as clinical outcomes including health system encounters and new diagnoses. RESULTS: Participating sites obtained institutional review board approval. Enrollment and follow-up are ongoing. CONCLUSIONS: This study will characterize medium and long-term sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection among a diverse population, predictors of sequelae, and their relative risk compared to persons with similar symptomatology but without SARS-CoV-2 infection. These data may inform clinical interventions for individuals with sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Evaluation and Management of Sternoclavicular Dislocation in the Emergency Department.

BACKGROUND: Sternoclavicular dislocation (SCD) is a rare injury but can result in hemodynamic and neurovascular complications. Emergency clinicians play an integral role in the evaluation and management of these injuries. OBJECTIVE: This article provides a narrative review of the diagnosis and management of SCD for the emergency clinician. DISCUSSION: SCD is an infrequent injury and may be misdiagnosed in the emergency department (ED). SCDs may be anterior or posterior. Although anterior SCD is more common, posterior SCD is more dangerous with a risk of pneumothorax or injury to the subclavian artery or vein, esophagus, trachea, or brachial plexus. Most patients present with shoulder and clavicular pain and decreased active range of motion. Clinicians should assess the sternoclavicular joint in patients with shoulder symptoms and consider SCD in traumatic shoulder injuries. Plain radiographs might not identify SCD, and computed tomography is recommended for both the diagnosis of SCD and evaluation of complications. Anterior SCD can be managed in the ED with analgesia, sedation, and closed reduction. If patients with posterior SCDs display airway, hemodynamic, or vascular compromise, emergent reduction is recommended with cardiothoracic consultation. Any complicated anterior SCD, including those with fracture, and all posterior SCDs require emergent orthopedic consultation, with considerations for cardiothoracic or vascular surgery notification. CONCLUSIONS: SCD is an uncommon orthopedic injury but may result in patient morbidity or mortality. Knowledge of SCDs can optimize emergency clinician evaluation and management of this condition.

Use of Telemedicine to Expedite and Expand Care During COVID-19.

INTRODUCTION: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) created challenges with access to care including increased burden on healthcare systems and potential exposure risks for vulnerable patients. To address these needs, Rush University Medical Center created a virtual, urgent care program specifically designed to address these challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: This was a retrospective study analyzing adult patients with COVID-19-related telemedicine visits performed between March 1-June 30, 2020. COVID-19-related telemedicine visits refer to those who used the "Concern for Coronavirus" module. We assessed the total number of telemedicine visits using this module, percentage with a subsequent emergency department (ED) visit within seven days, and outcomes (ie, hospitalization status, intubation, and death) of patients who presented to the ED for evaluation. Data are presented using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: A total of 2,974 adult patients accessed the program via the COVID-19 module over the four-month period. Of those, 142 patients (4.8%) had an ED visit within seven days. Only 14 patients (0.5%) required admission. One patient was intubated, and there were no deaths among the telemedicine population. CONCLUSION: The data suggests that telemedicine may be a safe and effective way to screen and treat patients with possible COVID-19, while reducing potential burdens on EDs.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors: An emergency medicine focused review.

INTRODUCTION: Several novel cancer therapies have been developed, many of which focused on immune system modulation. These include immune checkpoint inhibitors, modulators, T-cell therapy, monoclonal antibodies, cytokines, oncolytic viruses, and vaccines. Although many of these therapies are well tolerated, significant adverse reactions can occur as a result of these novel drugs. OBJECTIVE: This narrative review discusses complications associated with immune based cancer therapies, specifically immune checkpoint inhibitors, for emergency clinicians. DISCUSSION: Novel cancer therapies including immune checkpoint inhibitors can improve the care of patients with malignancy. However, these therapies have a number of potential complications, known as immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Complications can involve the neurologic, cardiac, pulmonary, dermatologic, renal, gastrointestinal, hepatic, and hematologic systems. IrAEs most commonly occur in the first several months following treatment initiation. These complications can be graded based on severity of clinical and laboratory findings. While most of these irAEs are mild, patients may present with critical illness. Treatment commonly includes immune checkpoint inhibitor discontinuation, steroids, and evaluation for other immunosuppressant medications. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge of this novel cancer therapy class and its potential complications can improve the care of patients on immune checkpoint inhibitors in the emergency department setting.

Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy: An emergency medicine focused review.

INTRODUCTION: Several novel cancer therapies have been recently introduced, each with complications that differ from chemotherapy and radiation. OBJECTIVE: This narrative review discusses complications associated with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy for emergency clinicians. DISCUSSION: Novel immune-based cancer therapies including CAR T-cell therapy have improved the care of patients with malignancy, primarily lymphoma and leukemia. However, severe complications may arise, including cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS). CRS is associated with excessive cytokine release that results in severe end organ injury. Patients present with fever and a range of symptoms based on the affected organs. Grading is determined by the need for cardiopulmonary intervention, while management focuses on resuscitation, evaluation for other concomitant conditions, and treatment with tocilizumab or steroids. ICANS is also associated with cytokine release, causing patients to present with a variety of neurologic features. A grading system is available for ICANS based on feature severity. Management is supportive with steroids. Other complications of CAR T-cell therapy include infusion reactions, hypogammaglobulinemia, tumor lysis syndrome, cytopenias, cardiac toxicity, and graft-versus-host disease. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge of this novel cancer therapy class and the potential complications can improve the care of these patients in the emergency department setting.

Thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome associated with COVID-19 vaccines.

BACKGROUND: Current vaccines for the Coronavirus Disease of 2019 (COVID-19) have demonstrated efficacy with low risk of adverse events. However, recent reports of thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS) associated with adenovirus vector vaccines have raised concern. OBJECTIVE: This narrative review summarizes the current background, evaluation, and management of TTS for emergency clinicians. DISCUSSION: TTS, also known as vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia, is a reaction associated with exposure to the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (Oxford-AstraZeneca) and AD26.COV2·S (Johnson & Johnson) vaccine, which may result in thrombocytopenia and thrombotic events. There are several case series of patients diagnosed with TTS, but the overall incidence is rare. TTS is characterized by exposure to one of the aforementioned vaccines 4-30 days prior to presentation, followed by thrombosis, mild-to-severe thrombocytopenia, and a positive platelet factor-4 (PF4)-heparin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Thrombosis typically involves atypical locations, including cerebral venous thrombosis and splanchnic vein thrombosis. Evaluation should include complete blood count, peripheral smear, D-dimer, fibrinogen, coagulation panel, renal and liver function, and electrolytes, as well as PF4-heparin ELISA if available. Consultation with hematology is recommended if suspected or confirmed. Treatment may include intravenous immunoglobulin and anticoagulation, while avoiding heparin-based agents and platelet transfusion. CONCLUSIONS: With increasing vaccine distribution, it is essential for emergency clinicians to be aware of the evaluation and management of this condition.

Complications in the adult asplenic patient: A review for the emergency clinician.

BACKGROUND: The spleen performs several important physiologic functions. However, patients can have functional asplenia or have their spleen removed for a number of reasons, which can put them at risk for several dangerous complications. OBJECTIVE: This narrative review provides a focused evaluation of adult asplenic patients and complications in the emergency departing setting. DISCUSSION: The spleen plays integral roles in the immune and reticuloendothelial systems and also modulates the inflammatory and coagulation cascades. Asplenia refers to the anatomic or physiologic loss of splenic function, which may be due to trauma, immunological, hematological, or oncological etiologies. Asplenic patients are at risk for several complications including infection, arterial and venous thrombosis, and pulmonary hypertension. Fever in an asplenic patient and overwhelming post-splenectomy infection (OPSI) are medical emergencies with a high mortality and require rapid evaluation and management with broad-spectrum antibiotics. Asplenic patients are at increased risk of arterial thrombosis, such as coronary artery disease, and venous thrombosis including deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and splenic and portal vein thrombosis. Management of venous thrombosis includes anticoagulation. Pulmonary hypertension with associated right ventricular dysfunction may also occur in asplenia. These patients require hemodynamic stabilization with an emphasis on inciting causes and treatment of the pulmonary hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: The spleen is an integral organ involved in several physiologic functions. Asplenia, or absence of spleen function, is associated with severe complications. Knowledge of these complications can improve the care of these patients.

Evolving from Morbidity and Mortality to a Case-based Error Reduction Conference: Evidence-based Best Practices from the Council of Emergency Medicine Residency Directors.

Morbidity and mortality conferences are common among emergency medicine residency programs and are an important part of quality improvement initiatives. Here we review the key components of running an effective morbidity and mortality conference with a focus on goals and objectives, case identification and selection, session structure, and case presentation.

Clinical Course and Factors Associated With Hospitalization and Critical Illness Among COVID-19 Patients in Chicago, Illinois.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 is a global pandemic associated with significant morbidity and mortality. However, information from United States cohorts is limited. Understanding predictors of admission and critical illness in these patients is essential to guide prevention and risk stratification strategies. METHODS: This was a retrospective, registry-based cohort study including all patients presenting to Rush University Medical Center in Chicago, Illinois, with COVID-19 from March 4, 2020 to June 21, 2020. Demographic, clinical, laboratory, and treatment data were obtained from the registry and compared between hospitalized and nonhospitalized patients as well as those with critical illness. We used logistic regression modeling to explore risk factors associated with hospitalization and critical illness. RESULTS: A total of 8,673 COVID-19 patients were included in the study, of whom 1,483 (17.1%) were admitted to the hospital and 528 (6.1%) were admitted to the intensive care unit. Risk factors for hospital admission included advanced age, male sex (odds ratio [OR] = 1.69, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.44 to 1.98), Hispanic/Latino ethnicity (OR = 1.52, 95% CI = 1.18 to 1.92), hypertension (OR = 1.77, 95% CI = 1.46 to 2.16), diabetes mellitus (OR = 1.84, 95% CI = 1.53 to 2.22), prior CVA (OR = 3.20, 95% CI = 1.99 to 5.14), coronary artery disease (OR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.03 to 2.06), heart failure (OR = 1.79, 95% CI = 1.23 to 2.61), chronic kidney disease (OR = 2.60, 95% CI = 1.77 to 3.83), end-stage renal disease (OR = 2.22, 95% CI = 1.12 to 4.41), cirrhosis (OR = 2.03, 95% CI = 1.42 to 2.91), fever (OR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.19 to 1.71), and dyspnea (OR = 4.53, 95% CI = 3.75 to 5.47). Factors associated with critical illness included male sex (OR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.12 to 1.88), congestive heart failure (OR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.00 to 2.12), obstructive sleep apnea (OR = 1.58, 95% CI = 1.07 to 2.33), blood-borne cancer (OR = 3.53, 95% CI = 1.26 to 9.86), leukocytosis (OR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.15 to 2.17), elevated neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (OR = 1.61, 95% CI = 1.20 to 2.17), hypoalbuminemia (OR = 1.80, 95% CI = 1.39 to 2.32), elevated AST (OR = 1.66, 95% CI = 1.20 to 2.29), elevated lactate (OR = 1.95, 95% CI = 1.40 to 2.73), elevated D-Dimer (OR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.05 to 1.97), and elevated troponin (OR = 3.65, 95% CI = 2.03 to 6.57). CONCLUSION: There are a number of factors associated with hospitalization and critical illness. Clinicians should consider these factors when evaluating patients with COVID-19.

Neurologic complications of COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: Much of the focus regarding the global pandemic of coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) has been on the cardiovascular, pulmonary, and hematologic complications. However, neurologic complications have arisen as an increasingly recognized area of morbidity and mortality. OBJECTIVE: This brief report summarizes the neurologic complications associated with COVID-19 with an emphasis on the emergency medicine clinician. DISCUSSION: COVID-19 has infected over 3.5 million people and killed over 240,000 people worldwide. While pulmonary complications are profound, the neurologic system is also significantly impacted, with complications including acute cerebrovascular events, encephalitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalopathy, and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Additionally, patients on immunosuppressive medications for pre-existing neurologic issues are at an increased risk for complications with COVID-19 infection, and many of the currently proposed COVID-19 therapies can interact with these medications. CONCLUSIONS: When caring for COVID-19 patients, emergency medicine clinicians should be aware of the neurologic complications from COVID-19.

Just the facts: What drugs are safe and effective for COVID-19?

A 53-year-old male presents with cough, fever, and myalgias for 7 days. Vitals include temperature, 38.0°C; heart rate, 110; blood pressure, 118/70 mm Hg; respiration rate, 28; and oxygen saturation 83% on room air. His only past medical history is hypertension. Your community is in the midst of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The patient is hypoxic but responds to oxygen supplementation with nasal cannula and a face mask. His chest x-ray demonstrates multifocal infiltrates. Are there any therapeutic agents currently available for COVID-19?

Evaluation and management of cauda equina syndrome in the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Cauda equina syndrome (CES) may be a devastating disease with the potential for significant patient morbidity. It is essential for emergency clinicians to be aware of how to effectively diagnose and manage this condition. OBJECTIVE: This article provides a narrative review of the diagnosis and management of CES for the emergency clinician. DISCUSSION: Cauda equina syndrome is a rare but emergent condition associated with back pain. It can result in severe morbidity and can be due to a variety of causes, most commonly vertebral disc protrusion. Diagnosis is often delayed, which may result in a poor prognosis. Red flags and findings consistent with CES include bilateral neurogenic sciatica, reduced perineal sensation, altered bladder function leading to painless urinary retention, loss of anal tone, and loss of sexual function. In isolation, history and examination findings demonstrate poor sensitivity. Symptoms may occur either suddenly or gradually, and most patients do not present with all of these symptoms. Postvoid bladder volume assessments can assist in the evaluation, but the diagnosis typically involves magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography myelography if MRI is not available. Treatment relies upon surgical consultation and operative intervention for decompression. CONCLUSION: Cauda equina syndrome can be a difficult diagnosis. However, knowledge of the history and examination findings, imaging, and treatment can assist the emergency clinician in optimizing management of this condition.

Impact of endotracheal tube twisting on the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound for intubation confirmation.

INTRODUCTION: Ultrasound is a readily-available technique used to identify accurate placement of an endotracheal tube (ETT) after an intubation attempt. There is limited research on using manipulation of the ETT to improve the diagnostic accuracy of ETT location confirmation. Our study sought to directly assess whether ETT twisting during the standard grayscale technique influenced the accuracy of intubation confirmation by ultrasound. METHODS: The study was performed using two different fresh cadavers. During each trial, the cadavers were randomized to either tracheal or esophageal intubation. Three blinded, ultrasound fellowship-trained sonographers assessed the location of the ETT post-intubation alternating between using either a technique with no ETT movement or a technique with ETT twisting. In the latter technique, the sonographers manipulated the ETT in using a side-to-side, twisting motion while performing the ultrasound exam. The study measured the accuracy of ETT location identification, time to identification, and sonographer confidence. RESULTS: 540 assessments were performed with equal numbers of tracheal and esophageal intubations. The accuracy of ultrasound using the static technique was 97.8% (95% CI 95.2% to 99.0%) and the accuracy using the ETT twisting technique was 100% (95% CI 98.6% to 100%). The ETT twisting group showed a faster time to identification with a mean time to identification of 4.97 s (95% CI 4.36 to 5.57 s) compared to 6.87 s (95% CI 6.30 to 7.44 s) for the static ETT group. Operator confidence was also higher in the ETT twisting group at 4.84/5.0 (95% CI 4.79 to 4.90) compared to 4.71/5.0 (95% CI 4.63 to 4.78) in the static ETT group. CONCLUSION: There was no statistically significant difference in the accuracy of ETT location identification between the two groups. However, utilizing the ETT twisting technique showed a statistically significant improvement in the time to identification and sonographer confidence.

Evaluation and Management of Angioedema in the Emergency Department.

Angioedema is defined by non-dependent, non-pitting edema that affects several different sites and is potentially life-threatening due to laryngeal edema. This narrative review provides emergency physicians with a focused overview of the evaluation and management of angioedema. Two primary forms include histamine-mediated and bradykinin-mediated angioedema. Histamine-mediated forms present similarly to anaphylaxis, while bradykinin-mediated angioedema presents with greater face and oropharyngeal involvement and higher risk of progression. Initial evaluation and management should focus on evaluation of the airway, followed by obtaining relevant historical features, including family history, medications, and prior episodes. Histamine-mediated angioedema should be treated with epinephrine intramuscularly, antihistaminergic medications, and steroids. These medications are not effective for bradykinin-mediated forms. Other medications include C1-INH protein replacement, kallikrein inhibitor, and bradykinin receptor antagonists. Evidence is controversial concerning the efficacy of these medications in an acute episode, and airway management is the most important intervention when indicated. Airway intervention may require fiberoptic or video laryngoscopy, with preparation for cricothyrotomy. Disposition is dependent on patient's airway and respiratory status, as well as the sites involved.